<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
<!DOCTYPE article PUBLIC "-//NLM//DTD JATS (Z39.96) Journal Publishing DTD v1.3 20210610//EN" "JATS-journalpublishing1-3.dtd">
<article article-type="research-article" dtd-version="1.3" xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance" xml:lang="ru"><front><journal-meta><journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">nefr</journal-id><journal-title-group><journal-title xml:lang="ru">Нефрология</journal-title><trans-title-group xml:lang="en"><trans-title>Nephrology (Saint-Petersburg)</trans-title></trans-title-group></journal-title-group><issn pub-type="ppub">1561-6274</issn><issn pub-type="epub">2541-9439</issn><publisher><publisher-name>Pavlov First Saint-Petersburg State Medical University</publisher-name></publisher></journal-meta><article-meta><article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36485/1561-6274-2022-26-1-10-26</article-id><article-id custom-type="elpub" pub-id-type="custom">nefr-2076</article-id><article-categories><subj-group subj-group-type="heading"><subject>Research Article</subject></subj-group><subj-group subj-group-type="section-heading" xml:lang="ru"><subject>ОБЗОРЫ И ЛЕКЦИИ</subject></subj-group><subj-group subj-group-type="section-heading" xml:lang="en"><subject>REVIEWS AND LECTURES</subject></subj-group></article-categories><title-group><article-title>Структурно-функциональные нарушения кишечного барьера и хроническая болезнь почек. Обзор литературы. Часть I</article-title><trans-title-group xml:lang="en"><trans-title>Structural and functional intestinal barrier abnormalities and chronic kidney disease. Literature review. Part I</trans-title></trans-title-group></title-group><contrib-group><contrib contrib-type="author" corresp="yes"><contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5893-3191</contrib-id><name-alternatives><name name-style="eastern" xml:lang="ru"><surname>Пятченков</surname><given-names>М. О.</given-names></name><name name-style="western" xml:lang="en"><surname>Pyatchenkov</surname><given-names>M. O.</given-names></name></name-alternatives><bio xml:lang="ru"><p>Пятченков Михаил Олегович, канд. мед. наук </p><p>194044, Санкт-Петербург, ул. Акад. Лебедева, д. 6</p><p>Тел.: +7 (812) 5424314 </p></bio><bio xml:lang="en"><p>Mikhail O. Pyatchenkov, MD, PhD, Department of nephrology and blood purification</p><p>194044, St. Petersburg</p><p>Phone: +7 (812) 5424314 </p></bio><email xlink:type="simple">pyatchenkovMD@yandex.ru</email><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff-1"/></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author" corresp="yes"><contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2867-044X</contrib-id><name-alternatives><name name-style="eastern" xml:lang="ru"><surname>Марков</surname><given-names>А. Г.</given-names></name><name name-style="western" xml:lang="en"><surname>Markov</surname><given-names>A. G.</given-names></name></name-alternatives><bio xml:lang="ru"><p>Проф. Марков Александр Георгиевич, д-р. биол. наук, каф. общей физиологии</p><p>199034, Санкт-Петербург, Университетская наб., д. 7-9</p><p>Тел.: +7(812) 3289589 </p></bio><bio xml:lang="en"><p>Prof. Alexander G. Markov, MD, PhD, DMedSci, Department of Faculty therapy</p><p>199034, St. Petersburg, Universitetskaj nab. 7-9</p><p>Phone: +7 (812) 3289589 </p></bio><email xlink:type="simple">a.markov@spbu.ru</email><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff-2"/></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author" corresp="yes"><contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9455-1043</contrib-id><name-alternatives><name name-style="eastern" xml:lang="ru"><surname>Румянцев</surname><given-names>А. Ш.</given-names></name><name name-style="western" xml:lang="en"><surname>Rumyantsev</surname><given-names>A. Sh.</given-names></name></name-alternatives><bio xml:lang="ru"><p>Проф. Румянцев Александр Шаликович, д-р. мед. наук, кафедра пропедевтики внутренних болезней</p><p>199106, Санкт-Петербург, 21-я линия В.О., д. 8а</p><p>197022, Санкт-Петербург, ул. Льва Толстого, д. 6–8</p><p>Тел.: +7(812)326-03-26, Тел.: +7(812)234-01-65 </p></bio><bio xml:lang="en"><p>Prof. Aleksandr Sh. Rumyantsev, MD, PhD, DMedSci, Department of Faculty therapy, Department of propaedeutic of internal diseases</p><p>199106, St. Petersburg</p><p>Phone: +7 (812)3260326 </p></bio><email xlink:type="simple">rash.56@mail.ru</email><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff-3"/></contrib></contrib-group><aff-alternatives id="aff-1"><aff xml:lang="ru"><institution>Военно-медицинская академия им. С.М. Кирова</institution><country>Россия</country></aff><aff xml:lang="en"><institution>Military Medical Academy S.M. Kirov</institution><country>Russian Federation</country></aff></aff-alternatives><aff-alternatives id="aff-2"><aff xml:lang="ru"><institution>Санкт-Петербургский государственный университет</institution><country>Россия</country></aff><aff xml:lang="en"><institution>St. Petersburg University</institution><country>Russian Federation</country></aff></aff-alternatives><aff-alternatives id="aff-3"><aff xml:lang="ru"><institution>Санкт-Петербургский государственный университет; Первый Санкт-Петербургский государственный медицинский университет им. акад. И.П. Павлова</institution><country>Россия</country></aff><aff xml:lang="en"><institution>St. Petersburg University; Pavlov First Saint Petersburg State Medical University</institution><country>Russian Federation</country></aff></aff-alternatives><pub-date pub-type="collection"><year>2022</year></pub-date><pub-date pub-type="epub"><day>18</day><month>02</month><year>2022</year></pub-date><volume>26</volume><issue>1</issue><fpage>10</fpage><lpage>26</lpage><permissions><copyright-statement>Copyright &amp;#x00A9; Пятченков М.О., Марков А.Г., Румянцев А.Ш., 2022</copyright-statement><copyright-year>2022</copyright-year><copyright-holder xml:lang="ru">Пятченков М.О., Марков А.Г., Румянцев А.Ш.</copyright-holder><copyright-holder xml:lang="en">Pyatchenkov M.O., Markov A.G., Rumyantsev A.S.</copyright-holder><license xml:lang="ru" license-type="creative-commons-attribution" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xlink:type="simple"><license-p>Данная работа распространяется под лицензией Creative Commons Attribution 4.0.</license-p></license><license xml:lang="en" license-type="creative-commons-attribution" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xlink:type="simple"><license-p>This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.</license-p></license></permissions><self-uri xlink:href="https://journal.nephrolog.ru/jour/article/view/2076">https://journal.nephrolog.ru/jour/article/view/2076</self-uri><abstract><p>Кишечная микробиота представляет собой неотъемлемую часть человеческого организма, которая играет важнейшую роль в поддержании его гомеостаза. Мирное сосуществование с триллионами микроорганизмов во многом зависит от нормального функционирования клеточных и внеклеточных компонентов слизистой оболочки кишечника, часто называемых «кишечным барьером». Он не только защищает организм от патогенных инфекций, но и одновременно удовлетворят его потребности в переваривании и усвоении питательных веществ. Неудивительно, что изменения в структуре и функциях кишечного барьера вовлечены в патогенез множества заболеваний, в том числе различных нефропатий. Патогенетическая взаимосвязь между кишечником и почками является двунаправленной. С одной стороны, уремия влияет на состав микробиоты и целостность кишечного эпителия. Качественные и количественные изменения состав кишечной микробиоты оказывают значимое влияние на состояние барьерной функции и проницаемости кишечной стенки за счет регуляции толщины слоя слизи и ее состава, скорости циркуляции энтероцитов, а также модуляции экспрессии белков, формирующих плотные контакты. С другой, уремические токсины, образующиеся в результате аномального микробного метаболизма, способствую прогрессированию почечной дисфункции. Кроме того, дисбактериоз и синдром повышенной эпителиальной проницаемости кишки, по мнению ряда исследователей, рассматривается как одна из ведущих причин анемии, нарушений нутриционного статуса, сердечно-сосудситых и многих других осложнений, нередко выявляемых у больных с хронической болезнью почек. В I части настоящего обзора отражены современные представления относительно нормальной структуры и физиологии кишечного барьера, а также методов исследования проницаемости кишечной стенки. Делается акцент на роли микробиоты в регуляции барьерных свойств слизисто-эпителиального кишечного слоя. Представлены основные отличия микробиоты больных с различными нефропатиями от здоровых людей, обсуждаются возможные причины их возникновения.</p></abstract><trans-abstract xml:lang="en"><p>The gut microbiota is an essential part of the human organism, which plays a crucial role in maintaining its homeostasis. Peaceful coexistence with trillions of microorganisms mainly depends on the normal functioning of cellular and extracellular components of the intestinal mucosa, often called the "intestinal barrier". This barrier protects the organism against pathogenic infections while and at the same time satisfying its requirements for digestion and absorption of nutrients. It is not surprising that structural and functional intestinal barrier abnormalities are involved in the pathogenesis of many diseases including various nephropathies. The pathogenetic interconnection between the intestine and the kidneys is bidirectional. On the one hand, uremia affects the microbiota composition and the integrity of the intestinal epithelium. On the other hand, uremic toxins translocation, formed as a result of abnormal microbial metabolism, from the intestine into circulation through the ultra-permeable barrier contributes to the progression of renal dysfunction. Furthermore, according to a number of researchers, dysbiosis and the leaky gut syndrome are considered as one of the possible causes of anemia, nutritional disorders, cardiovascular and many other complications, often diagnosed in patients with chronic renal disease. The first part of the review reflects modern data about normal intestinal barrier structure and physiology, as well as methods for studying the intestinal wall integrity and permeability. The significant role of microbiota in the regulation of the barrier properties of the intestinal mucous and epithelial layer is emphasizing. The main differences between the intestinal microflora of patients with nephropathies from healthy people are presented, possible causes of their occurrence are discussed.</p></trans-abstract><kwd-group xml:lang="ru"><kwd>кишечный барьер</kwd><kwd>кишечная проницаемость</kwd><kwd>хроническая болезнь почек</kwd><kwd>кишечная микробиота</kwd></kwd-group><kwd-group xml:lang="en"><kwd>intestinal barrier</kwd><kwd>intestinal permeability</kwd><kwd>chronic kidney disease</kwd><kwd>gut microbiota</kwd></kwd-group></article-meta></front><back><ref-list><title>References</title><ref id="cit1"><label>1</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Schoultz I, Keita A. The Intestinal Barrier and Current Techniques for the Assessment of Gut Permeability. Cells 2020;17;9(8):1909. doi: 10.3390/cells9081909</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Schoultz I, Keita A. The Intestinal Barrier and Current Techniques for the Assessment of Gut Permeability. Cells 2020;17;9(8):1909. doi: 10.3390/cells9081909</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit2"><label>2</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Wells J, Brummer R, Derrien M et al. Homeostasis of the gut barrier and potential biomarkers. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol 2017;312(3):171–193. doi: 10.1152/ajpgi.00048.2015</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Wells J, Brummer R, Derrien M et al. Homeostasis of the gut barrier and potential biomarkers. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol 2017;312(3):171–193. doi: 10.1152/ajpgi.00048.2015</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit3"><label>3</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Chelakkot C, Ghim J, Ryu S. Mechanisms regulating intestinal barrier integrity and its pathological implications. Exp Mol Med 2018;50(8):1–9. doi: 10.1038/s12276-018-0126-x</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Chelakkot C, Ghim J, Ryu S. Mechanisms regulating intestinal barrier integrity and its pathological implications. Exp Mol Med 2018;50(8):1–9. doi: 10.1038/s12276-018-0126-x</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit4"><label>4</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Groschwitz K, Hogan S. Intestinal barrier function: molecular regulation and disease pathogenesis. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2009;124(1):3–22. doi: 10.1016/j.jaci.2009.05.038</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Groschwitz K, Hogan S. Intestinal barrier function: molecular regulation and disease pathogenesis. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2009;124(1):3–22. doi: 10.1016/j.jaci.2009.05.038</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit5"><label>5</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Chakaroun R, Massier L, Kovacs P. Gut Microbiome, Intestinal Permeability, and Tissue Bacteria in Metabolic Disease: Perpetrators or Bystanders? Nutrients 2020;12(4):1082. doi: 10.3390/nu12041082</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Chakaroun R, Massier L, Kovacs P. Gut Microbiome, Intestinal Permeability, and Tissue Bacteria in Metabolic Disease: Perpetrators or Bystanders? Nutrients 2020;12(4):1082. doi: 10.3390/nu12041082</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit6"><label>6</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Kazemian N, Mahmoudi M, Halperin F et al. Gut microbiota and cardiovascular disease: opportunities and challenges. Microbiome 2020;8(1):36. doi: 10.1186/s40168-020-00821-0</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Kazemian N, Mahmoudi M, Halperin F et al. Gut microbiota and cardiovascular disease: opportunities and challenges. Microbiome 2020;8(1):36. doi: 10.1186/s40168-020-00821-0</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit7"><label>7</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Fukui H. Increased Intestinal Permeability and Decreased Barrier Function: Does It Really Influence the Risk of Inflammation? Inflamm Intest Dis 2016;1(3):135–145. doi: 10.1159/000447252</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Fukui H. Increased Intestinal Permeability and Decreased Barrier Function: Does It Really Influence the Risk of Inflammation? Inflamm Intest Dis 2016;1(3):135–145. doi: 10.1159/000447252</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit8"><label>8</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Odenwald M, Turner J. Intestinal permeability defects: is it time to treat? Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol 2013;11(9):1075–1083. doi: 10.1016/j.cgh.2013.07.001</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Odenwald M, Turner J. Intestinal permeability defects: is it time to treat? Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol 2013;11(9):1075–1083. doi: 10.1016/j.cgh.2013.07.001</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit9"><label>9</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Meijers B, Farré R, Dejongh S et al. Intestinal Barrier Function in Chronic Kidney Disease. Toxins (Basel) 2018;10(7):298. doi: 10.3390/toxins10070298</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Meijers B, Farré R, Dejongh S et al. Intestinal Barrier Function in Chronic Kidney Disease. Toxins (Basel) 2018;10(7):298. doi: 10.3390/toxins10070298</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit10"><label>10</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">March D, Graham-Brown M, Stover C et al. Intestinal Barrier Disturbances in Haemodialysis Patients: Mechanisms, Consequences, and Therapeutic Options. Biomed Res Int 2017;2017:5765417. doi: 10.1155/2017/5765417</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">March D, Graham-Brown M, Stover C et al. Intestinal Barrier Disturbances in Haemodialysis Patients: Mechanisms, Consequences, and Therapeutic Options. Biomed Res Int 2017;2017:5765417. doi: 10.1155/2017/5765417</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit11"><label>11</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Dekker J, Rossen J, Büller H, Einerhand A. The MUC family: an obituary. Trends Biochem Sci 2002;27(3):126–131. doi: 10.1016/s0968-0004(01)02052-7.</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Dekker J, Rossen J, Büller H, Einerhand A. The MUC family: an obituary. Trends Biochem Sci 2002;27(3):126–131. doi: 10.1016/s0968-0004(01)02052-7.</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit12"><label>12</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Paone P, Cani P. Mucus barrier, mucins and gut microbiota: the expected slimy partners? Gut 2020;69(12):2232–2243. doi: 10.1136/gutjnl-2020-322260</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Paone P, Cani P. Mucus barrier, mucins and gut microbiota: the expected slimy partners? Gut 2020;69(12):2232–2243. doi: 10.1136/gutjnl-2020-322260</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit13"><label>13</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">France M, Turner J. The mucosal barrier at a glance. J Cell Sci 2017;130(2):307–314. doi: 10.1242/jcs.193482</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">France M, Turner J. The mucosal barrier at a glance. J Cell Sci 2017;130(2):307–314. doi: 10.1242/jcs.193482</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit14"><label>14</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Markov A, Aschenbach J, Amasheh S. The epithelial barrier and beyond: claudins as amplifiers of physiological organ functions. IUBMB Life 2017;69(5):290–296. doi: 10.1002/iub.1622.</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Markov A, Aschenbach J, Amasheh S. The epithelial barrier and beyond: claudins as amplifiers of physiological organ functions. IUBMB Life 2017;69(5):290–296. doi: 10.1002/iub.1622.</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit15"><label>15</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Garcia-Hernandez V, Quiros M, Nusrat A. Intestinal epithelial claudins: expression and regulation in homeostasis and inflammation. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2017;1397(1):66–79. doi: 10.1111/nyas.13360</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Garcia-Hernandez V, Quiros M, Nusrat A. Intestinal epithelial claudins: expression and regulation in homeostasis and inflammation. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2017;1397(1):66–79. doi: 10.1111/nyas.13360</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit16"><label>16</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Markov A, Veshnyakova A, Fromm M et al. Segmental expression of claudin proteins correlates with tight junction barrier properties in rat intestine. J Comp Physiol B 2010;180(4):591–598. doi: 10.1007/s00360-009-0440-7</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Markov A, Veshnyakova A, Fromm M et al. Segmental expression of claudin proteins correlates with tight junction barrier properties in rat intestine. J Comp Physiol B 2010;180(4):591–598. doi: 10.1007/s00360-009-0440-7</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit17"><label>17</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Krug S, Amasheh S, Richter J et al. Tricellulin forms a barrier to macromolecules in tricellular tight junctions without affecting ion permeability. Mol Biol Cell 2009;20(16):3713–3724. doi: 10.1091/mbc.e09-01-0080</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Krug S, Amasheh S, Richter J et al. Tricellulin forms a barrier to macromolecules in tricellular tight junctions without affecting ion permeability. Mol Biol Cell 2009;20(16):3713–3724. doi: 10.1091/mbc.e09-01-0080</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit18"><label>18</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Fanning A, Van Itallie C, Anderson J. Zonula occludens-1 and -2 regulate apical cell structure and the zonula adherens cytoskeleton in polarized epithelia. Mol Biol Cell 2012;23(4):577–590. doi: 10.1091/mbc.E11-09-0791.</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Fanning A, Van Itallie C, Anderson J. Zonula occludens-1 and -2 regulate apical cell structure and the zonula adherens cytoskeleton in polarized epithelia. Mol Biol Cell 2012;23(4):577–590. doi: 10.1091/mbc.E11-09-0791.</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit19"><label>19</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Markov A, Aschenbach J, Amasheh S. Claudin clusters as determinants of epithelial barrier function. IUBMB Life 2015;67(1):29–35. doi: 10.1002/iub.1347)</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Markov A, Aschenbach J, Amasheh S. Claudin clusters as determinants of epithelial barrier function. IUBMB Life 2015;67(1):29–35. doi: 10.1002/iub.1347)</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit20"><label>20</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Turner J. Intestinal mucosal barrier function in health and disease. Nat Rev Immunol 2009;9(11):799–809. doi: 10.1038/nri2653</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Turner J. Intestinal mucosal barrier function in health and disease. Nat Rev Immunol 2009;9(11):799–809. doi: 10.1038/nri2653</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit21"><label>21</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Macpherson A, Yilmaz B, Limenitakis J, Ganal-Vonarburg S. IgA Function in Relation to the Intestinal Microbiota. Annu Rev Immunol 2018;36:359–381. doi: 10.1146/annurev-immunol-042617-053238</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Macpherson A, Yilmaz B, Limenitakis J, Ganal-Vonarburg S. IgA Function in Relation to the Intestinal Microbiota. Annu Rev Immunol 2018;36:359–381. doi: 10.1146/annurev-immunol-042617-053238</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit22"><label>22</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Sturgeon C, Fasano A. Zonulin, a regulator of epithelial andndothelial barrier functions, and its involvement in chronic inflammatory diseases. Tissue Barriers 2016;4(4):e1251384. doi: 10.1080/21688370.2016.1251384</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Sturgeon C, Fasano A. Zonulin, a regulator of epithelial andndothelial barrier functions, and its involvement in chronic inflammatory diseases. Tissue Barriers 2016;4(4):e1251384. doi: 10.1080/21688370.2016.1251384</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit23"><label>23</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Hollander D, Kaunitz J. The "Leaky Gut": Tight Junctions but Loose Associations? Dig Dis Sci 2020;65(5):1277–1287. doi: 10.1007/s10620-019-05777-2</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Hollander D, Kaunitz J. The "Leaky Gut": Tight Junctions but Loose Associations? Dig Dis Sci 2020;65(5):1277–1287. doi: 10.1007/s10620-019-05777-2</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit24"><label>24</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Garcia-Castillo M, Chinnapen D, Lencer W. Membrane Transport across Polarized Epithelia. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Biol 2017;9(9):a027912. doi: 10.1101/cshperspect.a027912</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Garcia-Castillo M, Chinnapen D, Lencer W. Membrane Transport across Polarized Epithelia. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Biol 2017;9(9):a027912. doi: 10.1101/cshperspect.a027912</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit25"><label>25</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Kucharzik T, Lügering N, Rautenberg K et al. Role of M cells in intestinal barrier function. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2000;915:171–183. doi: 10.1111/j.1749-6632.2000.tb05240.x</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Kucharzik T, Lügering N, Rautenberg K et al. Role of M cells in intestinal barrier function. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2000;915:171–183. doi: 10.1111/j.1749-6632.2000.tb05240.x</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit26"><label>26</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Bischoff S, Barbara G, Buurman W et al. Intestinal permeability-a new target for disease prevention and therapy. BMC Gastroenterol 2014;14:189. doi: 10.1186/s12876-014-0189-7</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Bischoff S, Barbara G, Buurman W et al. Intestinal permeability-a new target for disease prevention and therapy. BMC Gastroenterol 2014;14:189. doi: 10.1186/s12876-014-0189-7</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit27"><label>27</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Muto S. Physiological roles of claudins in kidney tubule paracellular transport. Am J Physiol Renal Physiol 2017;312(1):F9– F24. doi: 10.1152/ajprenal.00204.2016</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Muto S. Physiological roles of claudins in kidney tubule paracellular transport. Am J Physiol Renal Physiol 2017;312(1):F9– F24. doi: 10.1152/ajprenal.00204.2016</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit28"><label>28</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Prot-Bertoye C, Houillier P. Claudins in Renal Physiology and Pathology. Genes (Basel) 2020;11(3):290. doi: 10.3390/genes11030290</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Prot-Bertoye C, Houillier P. Claudins in Renal Physiology and Pathology. Genes (Basel) 2020;11(3):290. doi: 10.3390/genes11030290</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit29"><label>29</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Man A, Bertelli E, Rentini S et al. Age-associated modifications of intestinal permeability and innate immunity in human small intestine. Clin Sci (Lond) 2015;129(7):515–527. doi: 10.1042/CS20150046</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Man A, Bertelli E, Rentini S et al. Age-associated modifications of intestinal permeability and innate immunity in human small intestine. Clin Sci (Lond) 2015;129(7):515–527. doi: 10.1042/CS20150046</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit30"><label>30</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Karhu E, Forsgard R, Alanko L et al. Exercise and gastrointestinal symptoms: running-induced changes in intestinal permeability and markers of gastrointestinal function in asymptomatic and symptomatic runners. Eur J Appl Physiol 2017;117(12):2519– 2526. doi: 10.1007/s00421-017-3739-1</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Karhu E, Forsgard R, Alanko L et al. Exercise and gastrointestinal symptoms: running-induced changes in intestinal permeability and markers of gastrointestinal function in asymptomatic and symptomatic runners. Eur J Appl Physiol 2017;117(12):2519– 2526. doi: 10.1007/s00421-017-3739-1</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit31"><label>31</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Camilleri M, Madsen K, Spiller R et al. Intestinal barrier function in health and gastrointestinal disease [published correction appears in Neurogastroenterol Motil 2012;24(10):976. Van Meerveld, B G [corrected to Greenwood-Van Meerveld, B]]. Neurogastroenterol Motil 2012;24(6):503–512. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2982.2012.01921.x</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Camilleri M, Madsen K, Spiller R et al. Intestinal barrier function in health and gastrointestinal disease [published correction appears in Neurogastroenterol Motil 2012;24(10):976. Van Meerveld, B G [corrected to Greenwood-Van Meerveld, B]]. Neurogastroenterol Motil 2012;24(6):503–512. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2982.2012.01921.x</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit32"><label>32</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Markov A, Falchuk E, Kruglova N et al. Claudin expression in follicle-associated epithelium of rat Peyer’s patches defines a major restriction of the paracellular pathway. Acta Physiol (Oxf) 2016;216(1):112–119. doi: 10.1111/apha.12559</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Markov A, Falchuk E, Kruglova N et al. Claudin expression in follicle-associated epithelium of rat Peyer’s patches defines a major restriction of the paracellular pathway. Acta Physiol (Oxf) 2016;216(1):112–119. doi: 10.1111/apha.12559</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit33"><label>33</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Radloff J, Falchuk E, Markov A, Amasheh S. Molecular Characterization of Barrier Properties in Follicle-Associated Epithelium of Porcine Peyer’s Patches Reveals Major Sealing Function of Claudin-4. Front. Physiol 2017;14(8):579. doi: 10.3389/fphys.2017.00579</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Radloff J, Falchuk E, Markov A, Amasheh S. Molecular Characterization of Barrier Properties in Follicle-Associated Epithelium of Porcine Peyer’s Patches Reveals Major Sealing Function of Claudin-4. Front. Physiol 2017;14(8):579. doi: 10.3389/fphys.2017.00579</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit34"><label>34</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Fihn B, Sjöqvist A, Jodal M. Permeability of the rat small intestinal epithelium along the villus-crypt axis: effects of glucose transport. Gastroenterology 2000;119(4):1029–1036. doi: 10.1053/gast.2000.18148</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Fihn B, Sjöqvist A, Jodal M. Permeability of the rat small intestinal epithelium along the villus-crypt axis: effects of glucose transport. Gastroenterology 2000;119(4):1029–1036. doi: 10.1053/gast.2000.18148</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit35"><label>35</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Simanenkov V, Maev I, Tkacheva O et al. Syndrome of increased epithelial permeability in clinical practice. Multidisciplinary national Consensus. Cardiovascular Therapy and Prevention 2021;20(1):2758. doi: 10.15829/1728-8800-2021-2758</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Simanenkov V, Maev I, Tkacheva O et al. Syndrome of increased epithelial permeability in clinical practice. Multidisciplinary national Consensus. Cardiovascular Therapy and Prevention 2021;20(1):2758. doi: 10.15829/1728-8800-2021-2758</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit36"><label>36</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Wyatt J, Vogelsang H, Hübl W et al. Intestinal permeability and the prediction of relapse in Crohn's disease. Lancet 1993;341(8858):1437–1439. doi: 10.1016/0140-6736(93)90882-h</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Wyatt J, Vogelsang H, Hübl W et al. Intestinal permeability and the prediction of relapse in Crohn's disease. Lancet 1993;341(8858):1437–1439. doi: 10.1016/0140-6736(93)90882-h</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit37"><label>37</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Hollander D, Vadheim C, Brettholz E et al. Increased intestinal permeability in patients with Crohn's disease and their relatives. A possible etiologic factor. Ann Intern Med 1986;105(6):883–885. doi: 10.7326/0003-4819-105-6-883</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Hollander D, Vadheim C, Brettholz E et al. Increased intestinal permeability in patients with Crohn's disease and their relatives. A possible etiologic factor. Ann Intern Med 1986;105(6):883–885. doi: 10.7326/0003-4819-105-6-883</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit38"><label>38</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Su L, Nalle S, Sullivan E et al. Genetic ablation of myosin light chain kinase limits epithelial barrier dysfunction and attenuates experimental inflammatory bowel disease. Gastroenterology 2009;136(5)A81. doi: 10.1016/S0016-5085(09)60365-6</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Su L, Nalle S, Sullivan E et al. Genetic ablation of myosin light chain kinase limits epithelial barrier dysfunction and attenuates experimental inflammatory bowel disease. Gastroenterology 2009;136(5)A81. doi: 10.1016/S0016-5085(09)60365-6</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit39"><label>39</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Grootjans J, Thuijls G, Verdam F ea al. Non-invasive assessment of barrier integrity and function of the human gut. World J Gastrointest Surg 2010;2(3):61–69. doi: 10.4240/wjgs.v2.i3.61</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Grootjans J, Thuijls G, Verdam F ea al. Non-invasive assessment of barrier integrity and function of the human gut. World J Gastrointest Surg 2010;2(3):61–69. doi: 10.4240/wjgs.v2.i3.61</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit40"><label>40</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">van Wijck K, Verlinden T, van Eijk H et al. Novel multi-sugar assay for site-specific gastrointestinal permeability analysis: a randomized controlled crossover trial. Clin Nutr 2013;32(2):245–251. doi: 10.1016/j.clnu.2012.06.014</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">van Wijck K, Verlinden T, van Eijk H et al. Novel multi-sugar assay for site-specific gastrointestinal permeability analysis: a randomized controlled crossover trial. Clin Nutr 2013;32(2):245–251. doi: 10.1016/j.clnu.2012.06.014</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit41"><label>41</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Galipeau H, Verdu E. The complex task of measuring intestinal permeability in basic and clinical science. Neurogastroenterol Motil 2016;28(7):957–965. doi: 10.1111/nmo.12871</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Galipeau H, Verdu E. The complex task of measuring intestinal permeability in basic and clinical science. Neurogastroenterol Motil 2016;28(7):957–965. doi: 10.1111/nmo.12871</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit42"><label>42</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Rusticeanu M, Zimmer V, Lammert F. Visualising and quantifying intestinal permeability -where do we stand. Ann Hepatol 2021;23:100266. doi: 10.1016/j.aohep.2020.09.010.</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Rusticeanu M, Zimmer V, Lammert F. Visualising and quantifying intestinal permeability -where do we stand. Ann Hepatol 2021;23:100266. doi: 10.1016/j.aohep.2020.09.010.</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit43"><label>43</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Knight R, Vrbanac A, Taylor B et al. Best practices for analysing microbiomes. Nat Rev Microbiol 2018;16(7):410–422. doi: 10.1038/s41579-018-0029-9</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Knight R, Vrbanac A, Taylor B et al. Best practices for analysing microbiomes. Nat Rev Microbiol 2018;16(7):410–422. doi: 10.1038/s41579-018-0029-9</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit44"><label>44</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Ranjan R, Rani A, Finn P, Perkins D. Multiomic Strategies Reveal Diversity and Important Functional Aspects of Human Gut Microbiome. Biomed Res Int 2018;2018:6074918. doi: 10.1155/2018/6074918</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Ranjan R, Rani A, Finn P, Perkins D. Multiomic Strategies Reveal Diversity and Important Functional Aspects of Human Gut Microbiome. Biomed Res Int 2018;2018:6074918. doi: 10.1155/2018/6074918</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit45"><label>45</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Herrmann J, Turner J. Beyond Ussing's chambers: contemporary thoughts on integration of transepithelial transport. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol 2016;310(6):423–431. doi: 10.1152/ajpcell.00348.2015</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Herrmann J, Turner J. Beyond Ussing's chambers: contemporary thoughts on integration of transepithelial transport. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol 2016;310(6):423–431. doi: 10.1152/ajpcell.00348.2015</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit46"><label>46</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Dosh R, Jordan-Mahy N, Sammon C, Le Maitre C. Tissue Engineering Laboratory Models of the Small Intestine. Tissue Eng Part B Rev 2018;24(2):98–111. doi: 10.1089/ten.teb.2017.0276</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Dosh R, Jordan-Mahy N, Sammon C, Le Maitre C. Tissue Engineering Laboratory Models of the Small Intestine. Tissue Eng Part B Rev 2018;24(2):98–111. doi: 10.1089/ten.teb.2017.0276</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit47"><label>47</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Schutgens F, Clevers H. Human Organoids: Tools for Understanding Biology and Treating Diseases. Annu Rev Pathol 2020;15:211–234. doi: 10.1146/annurev-pathmechdis-012419-032611</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Schutgens F, Clevers H. Human Organoids: Tools for Understanding Biology and Treating Diseases. Annu Rev Pathol 2020;15:211–234. doi: 10.1146/annurev-pathmechdis-012419-032611</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit48"><label>48</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Bertiaux-Vandaële N, Youmba S, Belmonte L et al. The expression and the cellular distribution of the tight junction proteins are altered in irritable bowel syndrome patients with differences according to the disease subtype. Am J Gastroenterol 2011;106(12):2165–2173. doi: 10.1038/ajg.2011.257</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Bertiaux-Vandaële N, Youmba S, Belmonte L et al. The expression and the cellular distribution of the tight junction proteins are altered in irritable bowel syndrome patients with differences according to the disease subtype. Am J Gastroenterol 2011;106(12):2165–2173. doi: 10.1038/ajg.2011.257</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit49"><label>49</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Johansson M, Hansson G. Preservation of mucus in histological sections, immunostaining of mucins in fixed tissue, and localization of bacteria with FISH. Methods Mol Biol 2012;842:229– 235. doi: 10.1007/978-1-61779-513-8_13</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Johansson M, Hansson G. Preservation of mucus in histological sections, immunostaining of mucins in fixed tissue, and localization of bacteria with FISH. Methods Mol Biol 2012;842:229– 235. doi: 10.1007/978-1-61779-513-8_13</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit50"><label>50</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Vancamelbeke M., Vermeire S. The intestinal barrier: a fundamental role in health and disease. Expert Rev Gastroenterol Hepatol 2017;11(9):821–834. doi: 10.1080/17474124.2017.1343143</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Vancamelbeke M., Vermeire S. The intestinal barrier: a fundamental role in health and disease. Expert Rev Gastroenterol Hepatol 2017;11(9):821–834. doi: 10.1080/17474124.2017.1343143</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit51"><label>51</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Qin J, Li R, Raes J et al. A human gut microbial gene catalogue established by metagenomic sequencing. Nature 2010;464: 59–65. doi: 10.1038/nature08821</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Qin J, Li R, Raes J et al. A human gut microbial gene catalogue established by metagenomic sequencing. Nature 2010;464: 59–65. doi: 10.1038/nature08821</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit52"><label>52</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Turnbaugh P, Ley R, Hamady M et al. The human microbiome project. Nature 2007;449(7164):804–810. doi: 10.1038/nature06244</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Turnbaugh P, Ley R, Hamady M et al. The human microbiome project. Nature 2007;449(7164):804–810. doi: 10.1038/nature06244</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit53"><label>53</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Hooper L, Midtvedt T, Gordon J. How host-microbial interactions shape the nutrient environment of the mammalian intestine. Annu Rev Nutr 2002;22:283–307. doi: 10.1146/annurev.nutr.22.011602.092259</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Hooper L, Midtvedt T, Gordon J. How host-microbial interactions shape the nutrient environment of the mammalian intestine. Annu Rev Nutr 2002;22:283–307. doi: 10.1146/annurev.nutr.22.011602.092259</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit54"><label>54</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Burkholder P, McVeigh I. Synthesis of vitamins by intestinal bacteria. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1942;28:285–289. doi: 10.1073/pnas.28.7.285</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Burkholder P, McVeigh I. Synthesis of vitamins by intestinal bacteria. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1942;28:285–289. doi: 10.1073/pnas.28.7.285</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit55"><label>55</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Alam A, Leoni G, Quiros M et al. The microenvironment of injured murine gut elicits a local pro-restitutive microbiota. Nat Microbiol 2016;1:15021. doi: 10.1038/nmicrobiol.2015.21</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Alam A, Leoni G, Quiros M et al. The microenvironment of injured murine gut elicits a local pro-restitutive microbiota. Nat Microbiol 2016;1:15021. doi: 10.1038/nmicrobiol.2015.21</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit56"><label>56</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Jones R, Luo L, Ardita C et al. Symbiotic lactobacilli stimulate gut epithelial proliferation via Nox-mediated generation of reactive oxygen species. EMBO J 2013;32(23):3017–3028. doi: 10.1038/emboj.2013.224</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Jones R, Luo L, Ardita C et al. Symbiotic lactobacilli stimulate gut epithelial proliferation via Nox-mediated generation of reactive oxygen species. EMBO J 2013;32(23):3017–3028. doi: 10.1038/emboj.2013.224</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit57"><label>57</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Johansson M, Jakobsson E, Holmén-Larsson J et al. Normalization of Host Intestinal Mucus Layers Requires Long-Term Microbial Colonization. Cell Host Microbe 2015;18(5):582–592. doi: 10.1016/j.chom.2015.10.007</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Johansson M, Jakobsson E, Holmén-Larsson J et al. Normalization of Host Intestinal Mucus Layers Requires Long-Term Microbial Colonization. Cell Host Microbe 2015;18(5):582–592. doi: 10.1016/j.chom.2015.10.007</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit58"><label>58</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Round J, Mazmanian S. The gut microbiota shapes intestinal immune responses during health and disease. Nat Rev Immunol 2009;9:313–323. doi: 10.1038/nri2515</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Round J, Mazmanian S. The gut microbiota shapes intestinal immune responses during health and disease. Nat Rev Immunol 2009;9:313–323. doi: 10.1038/nri2515</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit59"><label>59</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">den Besten G, van Eunen K, Groen A et al. The role of short-chain fatty acids in the interplay between diet, gut microbiota, and host energy metabolism. J Lipid Res 2013;54:2325–2340. doi: 10.1194/jlr.R036012</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">den Besten G, van Eunen K, Groen A et al. The role of short-chain fatty acids in the interplay between diet, gut microbiota, and host energy metabolism. J Lipid Res 2013;54:2325–2340. doi: 10.1194/jlr.R036012</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit60"><label>60</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Peng L, Li Z, Green R et al. Butyrate enhances the intestinal barrier by facilitating tight junction assembly via activation of AMP-activated protein kinase in Caco-2 cell monolayers. J Nutr 2009;139(9):1619–1625. doi: 10.3945/jn.109.104638</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Peng L, Li Z, Green R et al. Butyrate enhances the intestinal barrier by facilitating tight junction assembly via activation of AMP-activated protein kinase in Caco-2 cell monolayers. J Nutr 2009;139(9):1619–1625. doi: 10.3945/jn.109.104638</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit61"><label>61</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Hamer H, Jonkers D, Venema K et al. Review article: the role of butyrate on colonic function. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2008;27(2):104–119. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2036.2007.03562.x</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Hamer H, Jonkers D, Venema K et al. Review article: the role of butyrate on colonic function. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2008;27(2):104–119. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2036.2007.03562.x</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit62"><label>62</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Smith P, Howitt M, Panikov N et al. The microbial metabolites, short-chain fatty acids, regulate colonic Treg cell homeostasis. Science 2013;341(6145):569–573. doi: 10.1126/science.1241165</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Smith P, Howitt M, Panikov N et al. The microbial metabolites, short-chain fatty acids, regulate colonic Treg cell homeostasis. Science 2013;341(6145):569–573. doi: 10.1126/science.1241165</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit63"><label>63</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Hudcovic T, Kolinska J, Klepetar J et al. Protective effect of Clostridium tyrobutyricum in acute dextran sodium sulphate-induced colitis: differential regulation of tumour necrosis factor-α and interleukin-18 in BALB/c and severe combined immunodeficiency mice. Clin Exp Immunol 2012;167(2):356–365. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2249.2011.04498.x</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Hudcovic T, Kolinska J, Klepetar J et al. Protective effect of Clostridium tyrobutyricum in acute dextran sodium sulphate-induced colitis: differential regulation of tumour necrosis factor-α and interleukin-18 in BALB/c and severe combined immunodeficiency mice. Clin Exp Immunol 2012;167(2):356–365. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2249.2011.04498.x</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit64"><label>64</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Willemsen L, Koetsier M, van Deventer S, van Tol E. Short chain fatty acids stimulate epithelial mucin 2 expression through differential effects on prostaglandin E(1) and E(2) production by intestinal myofibroblasts. Gut 2003;52(10):1442–1447. doi: 10.1136/gut.52.10.1442</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Willemsen L, Koetsier M, van Deventer S, van Tol E. Short chain fatty acids stimulate epithelial mucin 2 expression through differential effects on prostaglandin E(1) and E(2) production by intestinal myofibroblasts. Gut 2003;52(10):1442–1447. doi: 10.1136/gut.52.10.1442</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit65"><label>65</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Salvadori M, Tsalouchos A. Microbiota, renal disease and renal transplantation. World J Transplant 2021;11(3):16–36. doi: 10.5500/wjt.v11.i3.16</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Salvadori M, Tsalouchos A. Microbiota, renal disease and renal transplantation. World J Transplant 2021;11(3):16–36. doi: 10.5500/wjt.v11.i3.16</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit66"><label>66</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Sekirov I, Russell S, Antunes L, Finlay B. Gut microbiota in health and disease. Physiol Rev 2010;90(3):859–904. doi: 10.1152/physrev.00045.2009</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Sekirov I, Russell S, Antunes L, Finlay B. Gut microbiota in health and disease. Physiol Rev 2010;90(3):859–904. doi: 10.1152/physrev.00045.2009</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit67"><label>67</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Yu L, Wang J, Wei S, Ni Y. Host-microbial interactions and regulation of intestinal epithelial barrier function: From physiology to pathology. World J Gastrointest Pathophysiol 2012;3(1):27–43. doi: 10.4291/wjgp.v3.i1.27</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Yu L, Wang J, Wei S, Ni Y. Host-microbial interactions and regulation of intestinal epithelial barrier function: From physiology to pathology. World J Gastrointest Pathophysiol 2012;3(1):27–43. doi: 10.4291/wjgp.v3.i1.27</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit68"><label>68</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Ge X, Ding C, Zhao W et al. Antibiotics-induced depletion of mice microbiota induces changes in host serotonin biosynthesis and intestinal motility. J Transl Med. 2017;15(1):13. doi: 10.1186/s12967-016-1105-4</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Ge X, Ding C, Zhao W et al. Antibiotics-induced depletion of mice microbiota induces changes in host serotonin biosynthesis and intestinal motility. J Transl Med. 2017;15(1):13. doi: 10.1186/s12967-016-1105-4</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit69"><label>69</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Husebye E, Hellstrom P, Sundler F et al. Influence of microbial species on small intestinal myoelectric activity and transit in germ-free rats. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol 2001;280(3):G368–380. doi: 10.1152/ajpgi.2001.280.3.G368</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Husebye E, Hellstrom P, Sundler F et al. Influence of microbial species on small intestinal myoelectric activity and transit in germ-free rats. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol 2001;280(3):G368–380. doi: 10.1152/ajpgi.2001.280.3.G368</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit70"><label>70</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">McNamara N, Basbaum C. Signaling networks controlling mucin production in response to Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. Glycoconj J 2001;18(9):715–722. doi: 10.1023/a:1020875423678</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">McNamara N, Basbaum C. Signaling networks controlling mucin production in response to Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. Glycoconj J 2001;18(9):715–722. doi: 10.1023/a:1020875423678</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit71"><label>71</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Cosola C, Rocchetti M, Sabatino A et al. Microbiota issue in CKD: how promising are gut-targeted approaches? J Nephrol 2019;32(1):27–37. doi: 10.1007/s40620-018-0516-0</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Cosola C, Rocchetti M, Sabatino A et al. Microbiota issue in CKD: how promising are gut-targeted approaches? J Nephrol 2019;32(1):27–37. doi: 10.1007/s40620-018-0516-0</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit72"><label>72</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Scanlan P, Shanahan F, O'Mahony C, Marchesi J. Culture-independent analyses of temporal variation of the dominant fecal microbiota and targeted bacterial subgroups in Crohn's disease [published correction appears in J Clin Microbiol 2007;45(5):1671]. J Clin Microbiol 2006;44(11):3980–3988. doi: 10.1128/JCM.00312-06</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Scanlan P, Shanahan F, O'Mahony C, Marchesi J. Culture-independent analyses of temporal variation of the dominant fecal microbiota and targeted bacterial subgroups in Crohn's disease [published correction appears in J Clin Microbiol 2007;45(5):1671]. J Clin Microbiol 2006;44(11):3980–3988. doi: 10.1128/JCM.00312-06</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit73"><label>73</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Chakaroun R, Massier L, Kovacs P. Gut Microbiome, Intestinal Permeability, and Tissue Bacteria in Metabolic Disease: Perpetrators or Bystanders? Nutrients 2020;12(4):1082. doi: 10.3390/nu12041082</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Chakaroun R, Massier L, Kovacs P. Gut Microbiome, Intestinal Permeability, and Tissue Bacteria in Metabolic Disease: Perpetrators or Bystanders? Nutrients 2020;12(4):1082. doi: 10.3390/nu12041082</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit74"><label>74</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Xie Y, Bowe B, Mokdad A et al. Analysis of the Global Burden of Disease study highlights the global, regional, and national trends of chronic kidney disease epidemiology from 1990 to 2016. Kidney Int 2018;94(3):567–581. doi: 10.1016/j.kint.2018.04.011</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Xie Y, Bowe B, Mokdad A et al. Analysis of the Global Burden of Disease study highlights the global, regional, and national trends of chronic kidney disease epidemiology from 1990 to 2016. Kidney Int 2018;94(3):567–581. doi: 10.1016/j.kint.2018.04.011</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit75"><label>75</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Lee Y, Hung S, Wang H et al. Different Risk of Common Gastrointestinal Disease Between Groups Undergoing Hemodialysis or Peritoneal Dialysis or With Non-End Stage Renal Disease: A Nationwide Population-Based Cohort Study. Medicine (Baltimore) 2015;94(36):e1482. doi: 10.1097/MD.0000000000001482</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Lee Y, Hung S, Wang H et al. Different Risk of Common Gastrointestinal Disease Between Groups Undergoing Hemodialysis or Peritoneal Dialysis or With Non-End Stage Renal Disease: A Nationwide Population-Based Cohort Study. Medicine (Baltimore) 2015;94(36):e1482. doi: 10.1097/MD.0000000000001482</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit76"><label>76</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Costa-Moreira P, Vilas-Boas F, Teixeira Fraga A, Macedo G. Particular aspects of gastroenterological disorders in chronic kidney disease and end-stage renal disease patients: a clinically focused review. Scand J Gastroenterol 2020;55(2):129–138. doi: 10.1080/00365521.2020.1722217</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Costa-Moreira P, Vilas-Boas F, Teixeira Fraga A, Macedo G. Particular aspects of gastroenterological disorders in chronic kidney disease and end-stage renal disease patients: a clinically focused review. Scand J Gastroenterol 2020;55(2):129–138. doi: 10.1080/00365521.2020.1722217</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit77"><label>77</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Vaziri N, Dure-Smith B, Miller R, Mirahmadi M. Pathology of gastrointestinal tract in chronic hemodialysis patients: an autopsy study of 78 cases. Am J Gastroenterol 1985;80(8):608–611</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Vaziri N, Dure-Smith B, Miller R, Mirahmadi M. Pathology of gastrointestinal tract in chronic hemodialysis patients: an autopsy study of 78 cases. Am J Gastroenterol 1985;80(8):608–611</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit78"><label>78</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Лукичев БГ, Румянцев АШ, Акименко В. Микробиота кишечника и хроническая болезнь почек. Сообщение первое. Нефрология 2018;22(4):57–73. doi: 10.24884/1561-6274-2018-22-4-57-73 LukichevBG, RumyantsevAS, AkimenkoV. Colonic microbiota and chronic kidney disease. Message one. Nephrology (SaintPetersburg) 2018;22(4):57–73. (In Russ.)] doi: 10.24884/1561-6274-2018-22-4-57-73</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Лукичев БГ, Румянцев АШ, Акименко В. Микробиота кишечника и хроническая болезнь почек. Сообщение первое. Нефрология 2018;22(4):57–73. doi: 10.24884/1561-6274-2018-22-4-57-73 LukichevBG, RumyantsevAS, AkimenkoV. Colonic microbiota and chronic kidney disease. Message one. Nephrology (SaintPetersburg) 2018;22(4):57–73. (In Russ.)] doi: 10.24884/1561-6274-2018-22-4-57-73</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit79"><label>79</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Simenhoff M, Saukkonen J, Burke J et al. Bacterial populations of the small intestine in uremia. Nephron 1978;22(1–3):63– 68. doi: 10.1159/000181424</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Simenhoff M, Saukkonen J, Burke J et al. Bacterial populations of the small intestine in uremia. Nephron 1978;22(1–3):63– 68. doi: 10.1159/000181424</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit80"><label>80</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Simenhoff M, Saukkonen J, Burke J et al. Amine metabolism and the small bowel in uraemia. Lancet 1976;2(7990):818– 821. doi: 10.1016/s0140-6736(76)91207-1</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Simenhoff M, Saukkonen J, Burke J et al. Amine metabolism and the small bowel in uraemia. Lancet 1976;2(7990):818– 821. doi: 10.1016/s0140-6736(76)91207-1</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit81"><label>81</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Meinardi S, Jin K, Barletta B et al. Exhaled breath and fecal volatile organic biomarkers of chronic kidney disease. Biochim Biophys Acta 2013;1830(3):2531–2537. doi: 10.1016/j.bbagen.2012.12.006</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Meinardi S, Jin K, Barletta B et al. Exhaled breath and fecal volatile organic biomarkers of chronic kidney disease. Biochim Biophys Acta 2013;1830(3):2531–2537. doi: 10.1016/j.bbagen.2012.12.006</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit82"><label>82</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Lee H, Pahl M, Vaziri N, Blake D. Effect of hemodialysis and diet on the exhaled breath methanol concentration in patients with ESRD. J Ren Nutr 2012;22(3):357–364. doi: 10.1053/j.jrn.2011.07.003</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Lee H, Pahl M, Vaziri N, Blake D. Effect of hemodialysis and diet on the exhaled breath methanol concentration in patients with ESRD. J Ren Nutr 2012;22(3):357–364. doi: 10.1053/j.jrn.2011.07.003</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit83"><label>83</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Vaziri N, Wong J, Pahl M et al. Chronic kidney disease alters intestinal microbial flora. Kidney Int 2013;83(2):308–315. doi: 10.1038/ki.2012.345</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Vaziri N, Wong J, Pahl M et al. Chronic kidney disease alters intestinal microbial flora. Kidney Int 2013;83(2):308–315. doi: 10.1038/ki.2012.345</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit84"><label>84</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Wong J, Piceno Y, DeSantis T et al. Expansion of urease- and uricase-containing, indole- and p-cresol-forming and contraction of short-chain fatty acid-producing intestinal microbiota in ESRD. Am J Nephrol 2014;39(3):230–237. doi: 10.1159/000360010</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Wong J, Piceno Y, DeSantis T et al. Expansion of urease- and uricase-containing, indole- and p-cresol-forming and contraction of short-chain fatty acid-producing intestinal microbiota in ESRD. Am J Nephrol 2014;39(3):230–237. doi: 10.1159/000360010</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit85"><label>85</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Wang X, Yang S, Li S et al. Aberrant gut microbiota alters host metabolome and impacts renal failure in humans and rodents. Gut 2020;69(12):2131–2142. doi: 10.1136/gutjnl-2019-319766</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Wang X, Yang S, Li S et al. Aberrant gut microbiota alters host metabolome and impacts renal failure in humans and rodents. Gut 2020;69(12):2131–2142. doi: 10.1136/gutjnl-2019-319766</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit86"><label>86</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Moco S, Martin F, Rezzi S. Metabolomics view on gut microbiome modulation by polyphenol-rich foods. J Proteome Res 2012;11(10):4781–4790. doi: 10.1021/pr300581s</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Moco S, Martin F, Rezzi S. Metabolomics view on gut microbiome modulation by polyphenol-rich foods. J Proteome Res 2012;11(10):4781–4790. doi: 10.1021/pr300581s</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit87"><label>87</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Zhao J, Ning X, Liu B et al. Specific alterations in gut microbiota in patients with chronic kidney disease: an updated systematic review. Ren Fail 2021;43(1):102–112. doi: 10.1080/0886022X.2020.1864404</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Zhao J, Ning X, Liu B et al. Specific alterations in gut microbiota in patients with chronic kidney disease: an updated systematic review. Ren Fail 2021;43(1):102–112. doi: 10.1080/0886022X.2020.1864404</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit88"><label>88</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Ермоленко ВМ, Михайлова НА, Батэрдэнэ С. Уремический синдром и уремические токсины (Обзор литературы). Нефрология и диализ 2008;10(3,4):182–272 Ermolenko V, Mikhailova N, Baterdene S. Uremic syndrome and uremic toxins (Review). Nephrology and dialysis 2008;10(3,4):182–272. (In Russ.)</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Ермоленко ВМ, Михайлова НА, Батэрдэнэ С. Уремический синдром и уремические токсины (Обзор литературы). Нефрология и диализ 2008;10(3,4):182–272 Ermolenko V, Mikhailova N, Baterdene S. Uremic syndrome and uremic toxins (Review). Nephrology and dialysis 2008;10(3,4):182–272. (In Russ.)</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit89"><label>89</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Fryc J, Naumnik B. Thrombolome and Its Emerging Role in Chronic Kidney Diseases. Toxins (Basel) 2021;13(3):223. doi: 10.3390/toxins13030223</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Fryc J, Naumnik B. Thrombolome and Its Emerging Role in Chronic Kidney Diseases. Toxins (Basel) 2021;13(3):223. doi: 10.3390/toxins13030223</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit90"><label>90</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Chao C, Lin S. Uremic Toxins and Frailty in Patients with Chronic Kidney Disease: A Molecular Insight. Int J Mol Sci 2021;22(12):6270. doi: 10.3390/ijms22126270</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Chao C, Lin S. Uremic Toxins and Frailty in Patients with Chronic Kidney Disease: A Molecular Insight. Int J Mol Sci 2021;22(12):6270. doi: 10.3390/ijms22126270</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit91"><label>91</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Rysz J, Franczyk B, Ławiński J et al. The Impact of CKD on Uremic Toxins and Gut Microbiota. Toxins (Basel) 2021;13(4):252. doi: 10.3390/toxins13040252</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Rysz J, Franczyk B, Ławiński J et al. The Impact of CKD on Uremic Toxins and Gut Microbiota. Toxins (Basel) 2021;13(4):252. doi: 10.3390/toxins13040252</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit92"><label>92</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Vanholder R, Pletinck A, Schepers E, Glorieux G. Biochemical and Clinical Impact of Organic Uremic Retention Solutes: A Comprehensive Update. Toxins (Basel) 2018;10(1):33. doi: 10.3390/toxins10010033</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Vanholder R, Pletinck A, Schepers E, Glorieux G. Biochemical and Clinical Impact of Organic Uremic Retention Solutes: A Comprehensive Update. Toxins (Basel) 2018;10(1):33. doi: 10.3390/toxins10010033</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit93"><label>93</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Kim S, Song I. The clinical impact of gut microbiota in chronic kidney disease. Korean J Intern Med 2020;35(6):1305– 1316. doi: 10.3904/kjim.2020.411</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Kim S, Song I. The clinical impact of gut microbiota in chronic kidney disease. Korean J Intern Med 2020;35(6):1305– 1316. doi: 10.3904/kjim.2020.411</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit94"><label>94</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Bain M, Faull R, Fornasini G et al. Accumulation of trimethylamine and trimethylamine-N-oxide in end-stage renal disease patients undergoing haemodialysis. Nephrol Dial Transplant 2006;21:1300–1304. doi: 10.1093/ndt/gfk056</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Bain M, Faull R, Fornasini G et al. Accumulation of trimethylamine and trimethylamine-N-oxide in end-stage renal disease patients undergoing haemodialysis. Nephrol Dial Transplant 2006;21:1300–1304. doi: 10.1093/ndt/gfk056</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit95"><label>95</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Ichii O, Otsuka-Kanazawa S, Nakamura T et al. Podocyte injury caused by indoxyl sulfate, a uremic toxin and aryl-hydrocarbon receptor ligand. PLoS One 2014;9(9):e108448. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0108448</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Ichii O, Otsuka-Kanazawa S, Nakamura T et al. Podocyte injury caused by indoxyl sulfate, a uremic toxin and aryl-hydrocarbon receptor ligand. PLoS One 2014;9(9):e108448. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0108448</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit96"><label>96</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Barreto F, Barreto D, Liabeuf S et al. Serum indoxyl sulfate is associated with vascular disease and mortality in chronic kidney disease patients. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 2009;4:1551–1558. doi: 10.2215/CJN.03980609</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Barreto F, Barreto D, Liabeuf S et al. Serum indoxyl sulfate is associated with vascular disease and mortality in chronic kidney disease patients. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 2009;4:1551–1558. doi: 10.2215/CJN.03980609</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit97"><label>97</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Лукичёв БГ, Подгаецкая ОЮ, Карунная АВ, Румянцев АШ. Индоксил сульфат при хронической болезни почек. Нефрология 2014;18(1):25–32. doi: 10.24884/1561-6274-2014-18-1-20-24 Lukichev BG, Karunnaya AV, Rumyantsev AS. Indoxyl sulphate at chronic kidney disease. Nephrology (Saint-Petersburg) 2014;18(1):25–32. (In Russ.) doi: 10.24884/1561-6274-2014-18-1-20-24</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Лукичёв БГ, Подгаецкая ОЮ, Карунная АВ, Румянцев АШ. Индоксил сульфат при хронической болезни почек. Нефрология 2014;18(1):25–32. doi: 10.24884/1561-6274-2014-18-1-20-24 Lukichev BG, Karunnaya AV, Rumyantsev AS. Indoxyl sulphate at chronic kidney disease. Nephrology (Saint-Petersburg) 2014;18(1):25–32. (In Russ.) doi: 10.24884/1561-6274-2014-18-1-20-24</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit98"><label>98</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Mozar A, Louvet L, Godin C et al. Indoxyl sulphate inhibits osteoclast differentiation and function. Nephrol Dial Transplant 2012;27(6):2176–2181. doi: 10.1093/ndt/gfr647</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Mozar A, Louvet L, Godin C et al. Indoxyl sulphate inhibits osteoclast differentiation and function. Nephrol Dial Transplant 2012;27(6):2176–2181. doi: 10.1093/ndt/gfr647</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit99"><label>99</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Chiang C, Tanaka T, Inagi R et al. Indoxyl sulfate, a representative uremic toxin, suppresses erythropoietin production in a HIF-dependent manner. Lab Invest 2011;91(11):1564–1571. doi: 10.1038/labinvest.2011.114</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Chiang C, Tanaka T, Inagi R et al. Indoxyl sulfate, a representative uremic toxin, suppresses erythropoietin production in a HIF-dependent manner. Lab Invest 2011;91(11):1564–1571. doi: 10.1038/labinvest.2011.114</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit100"><label>100</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Ahmed M, Abed M, Voelkl J, Lang F. Triggering of suicidal erythrocyte death by uremic toxin indoxyl sulfate. BMC Nephrol 2013;14:244. doi: 10.1186/1471-2369-14-244</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Ahmed M, Abed M, Voelkl J, Lang F. Triggering of suicidal erythrocyte death by uremic toxin indoxyl sulfate. BMC Nephrol 2013;14:244. doi: 10.1186/1471-2369-14-244</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit101"><label>101</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Sun C, Chang S, Wu M. Uremic toxins induce kidney fibrosis by activating intrarenal renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system associated epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition. PLoS One 2012;7(3):e34026. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0034026</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Sun C, Chang S, Wu M. Uremic toxins induce kidney fibrosis by activating intrarenal renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system associated epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition. PLoS One 2012;7(3):e34026. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0034026</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit102"><label>102</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Watanabe H, Miyamoto Y, Honda D et al. p-Cresyl sulfate causes renal tubular cell damage by inducing oxidative stress by activation of NADPH oxidase. Kidney Int 2013;83(4):582–592. doi: 10.1038/ki.2012.448</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Watanabe H, Miyamoto Y, Honda D et al. p-Cresyl sulfate causes renal tubular cell damage by inducing oxidative stress by activation of NADPH oxidase. Kidney Int 2013;83(4):582–592. doi: 10.1038/ki.2012.448</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit103"><label>103</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Lin C, Pan C, Liu H et al. The role of protein-bound uremic toxins on peripheral artery disease and vascular access failure in patients on hemodialysis. Atherosclerosis 2012;225(1):173–179. doi: 10.1016/j.atherosclerosis.2012.07.012</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Lin C, Pan C, Liu H et al. The role of protein-bound uremic toxins on peripheral artery disease and vascular access failure in patients on hemodialysis. Atherosclerosis 2012;225(1):173–179. doi: 10.1016/j.atherosclerosis.2012.07.012</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit104"><label>104</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Tang W, Wang Z, Kennedy D et al. Gut microbiota-dependent trimethylamine N-oxide (TMAO) pathway contributes to both development of renal insufficiency and mortality risk in chronic kidney disease. Circ Res 2015;116(3):448–455. doi: 10.1161/CIRCRESAHA.116.305360</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Tang W, Wang Z, Kennedy D et al. Gut microbiota-dependent trimethylamine N-oxide (TMAO) pathway contributes to both development of renal insufficiency and mortality risk in chronic kidney disease. Circ Res 2015;116(3):448–455. doi: 10.1161/CIRCRESAHA.116.305360</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit105"><label>105</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Stubbs J, House J, Ocque A et al. Serum Trimethylamine-N-Oxide is Elevated in CKD and Correlates with Coronary Atherosclerosis Burden. J Am Soc Nephrol 2016;27(1):305–313. doi: 10.1681/ASN.2014111063</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Stubbs J, House J, Ocque A et al. Serum Trimethylamine-N-Oxide is Elevated in CKD and Correlates with Coronary Atherosclerosis Burden. J Am Soc Nephrol 2016;27(1):305–313. doi: 10.1681/ASN.2014111063</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit106"><label>106</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Koeth R, Wang Z, Levison B et al. Intestinal microbiota metabolism of L-carnitine, a nutrient in red meat, promotes atherosclerosis. Nat Med 2013;19(5):576–585. doi: 10.1038/nm.3145</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Koeth R, Wang Z, Levison B et al. Intestinal microbiota metabolism of L-carnitine, a nutrient in red meat, promotes atherosclerosis. Nat Med 2013;19(5):576–585. doi: 10.1038/nm.3145</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit107"><label>107</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Layden B, Angueira A, Brodsky M et al. Short chain fatty acids and their receptors: new metabolic targets. Transl Res 2013;161(3):131–140. doi: 10.1016/j.trsl.2012.10.007</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Layden B, Angueira A, Brodsky M et al. Short chain fatty acids and their receptors: new metabolic targets. Transl Res 2013;161(3):131–140. doi: 10.1016/j.trsl.2012.10.007</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit108"><label>108</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Vaziri N, Yuan J, Norris K. Role of urea in intestinal barrier dysfunction and disruption of epithelial tight junction in chronic kidney disease. Am J Nephrol 2013;37(1):1–6. doi: 10.1159/000345969</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Vaziri N, Yuan J, Norris K. Role of urea in intestinal barrier dysfunction and disruption of epithelial tight junction in chronic kidney disease. Am J Nephrol 2013;37(1):1–6. doi: 10.1159/000345969</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit109"><label>109</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Lau W, Chang Y, Vaziri N. The consequences of altered microbiota in immune-related chronic kidney disease. Nephrol Dial Transplant 2021;36(10):1791–1798. doi: 10.1093/ndt/gfaa087</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Lau W, Chang Y, Vaziri N. The consequences of altered microbiota in immune-related chronic kidney disease. Nephrol Dial Transplant 2021;36(10):1791–1798. doi: 10.1093/ndt/gfaa087</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit110"><label>110</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Evenepoel P, Poesen R, Meijers B. The gut-kidney axis. Pediatr Nephrol 2017;32(11):2005–2014. doi: 10.1007/s00467-016-3527-x</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Evenepoel P, Poesen R, Meijers B. The gut-kidney axis. Pediatr Nephrol 2017;32(11):2005–2014. doi: 10.1007/s00467-016-3527-x</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit111"><label>111</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Lee T, Clavel T, Smirnov K et al. Oral versus intravenous iron replacement therapy distinctly alters the gut microbiota and metabolome in patients with IBD. Gut 2017;66(5):863–871. doi: 10.1136/gutjnl-2015-309940</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Lee T, Clavel T, Smirnov K et al. Oral versus intravenous iron replacement therapy distinctly alters the gut microbiota and metabolome in patients with IBD. Gut 2017;66(5):863–871. doi: 10.1136/gutjnl-2015-309940</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit112"><label>112</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Vaziri N, Zhao Y, Pahl M. Altered intestinal microbial flora and impaired epithelial barrier structure and function in CKD: the nature, mechanisms, consequences and potential treatment. Nephrol Dial Transplant 2016;31(5):737–746. doi: 10.1093/ndt/gfv095</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Vaziri N, Zhao Y, Pahl M. Altered intestinal microbial flora and impaired epithelial barrier structure and function in CKD: the nature, mechanisms, consequences and potential treatment. Nephrol Dial Transplant 2016;31(5):737–746. doi: 10.1093/ndt/gfv095</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref></ref-list><fn-group><fn fn-type="conflict"><p>The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest present.</p></fn></fn-group></back></article>
