<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
<!DOCTYPE article PUBLIC "-//NLM//DTD JATS (Z39.96) Journal Publishing DTD v1.3 20210610//EN" "JATS-journalpublishing1-3.dtd">
<article article-type="research-article" dtd-version="1.3" xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance" xml:lang="ru"><front><journal-meta><journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">nefr</journal-id><journal-title-group><journal-title xml:lang="ru">Нефрология</journal-title><trans-title-group xml:lang="en"><trans-title>Nephrology (Saint-Petersburg)</trans-title></trans-title-group></journal-title-group><issn pub-type="ppub">1561-6274</issn><issn pub-type="epub">2541-9439</issn><publisher><publisher-name>Pavlov First Saint-Petersburg State Medical University</publisher-name></publisher></journal-meta><article-meta><article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.24884/1561-6274-2011-15-2-20-29</article-id><article-id custom-type="elpub" pub-id-type="custom">nefr-456</article-id><article-categories><subj-group subj-group-type="heading"><subject>Research Article</subject></subj-group><subj-group subj-group-type="section-heading" xml:lang="ru"><subject>ОБЗОРЫ И ЛЕКЦИИ</subject></subj-group><subj-group subj-group-type="section-heading" xml:lang="en"><subject>REVIEWS AND LECTURES</subject></subj-group></article-categories><title-group><article-title>МЕХАНИЗМЫ РАЗВИТИЯ И ПРОГРЕССИРОВАНИЯ НЕФРОПАТИИ У БОЛЬНЫХ СЕРДЕЧНОЙ НЕДОСТАТОЧНОСТЬЮ С ХРОНИЧЕСКИМ КАРДИОРЕНАЛЬНЫМ СИНДРОМОМ</article-title><trans-title-group xml:lang="en"><trans-title>MECHANISMS OF NEPHROPATHY DEVELOPMENT AND PROGRESSION IN HEART FAILURE PATIENTS WITH CHRONIC CARDIORENAL SYNDROME</trans-title></trans-title-group></title-group><contrib-group><contrib contrib-type="author" corresp="yes"><name-alternatives><name name-style="eastern" xml:lang="ru"><surname>КУЗЬМИН</surname><given-names>О. Б.</given-names></name><name name-style="western" xml:lang="en"><surname>KUZMIN</surname><given-names>O. V.</given-names></name></name-alternatives></contrib></contrib-group><pub-date pub-type="collection"><year>2011</year></pub-date><pub-date pub-type="epub"><day>10</day><month>02</month><year>2011</year></pub-date><volume>15</volume><issue>2</issue><fpage>20</fpage><lpage>29</lpage><permissions><copyright-statement>Copyright &amp;#x00A9; КУЗЬМИН О.Б., 2011</copyright-statement><copyright-year>2011</copyright-year><copyright-holder xml:lang="ru">КУЗЬМИН О.Б.</copyright-holder><copyright-holder xml:lang="en">KUZMIN O.V.</copyright-holder><license license-type="creative-commons-attribution" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xlink:type="simple"><license-p>This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.</license-p></license></permissions><self-uri xlink:href="https://journal.nephrolog.ru/jour/article/view/456">https://journal.nephrolog.ru/jour/article/view/456</self-uri><abstract><p>В обзоре обобщаются современные сведения о морфологической картине, механизмах формирования и подходах к лекарственной терапии хронической болезни почек у больных ХСН с хроническим кардиоренальным синдромом. Основные причины появления и прогрессирования хронической «сердечной» нефропатии – нейрогуморальная активация и нарушение системной артериальной и венозной гемодинамики, запускающие нейрогуморальные, гемодинамические игипоксические механизмы склеротического повреждения почек. Самым ранним из них является компенсаторное по своей природе сужение эфферентных гломерулярных артериол, способствующее увеличению фильтрационной фракции и появлению стойкой гломерулярной гипертензии, вызывающей механическое повреждение фенестрированного эндотелия, подоцитов и мезангиальных клеток клубочков. В формировании этого внутрипочечного гемодинамического дефекта главную роль играет гиперактивность циркулирующей РААС и почечной тканевой РАС. По мере дальнейшего нарушения постгломерулярного кровотока и появления у лиц с выраженной ХСН анемического синдрома в механизм склеротическогоповреждения почек включается почечная тканевая гипоксия, ведущая к развитию и прогрессированию гипоксического гломерулосклероза и тубулоинтерстициального фиброза, ускоряющих потерю почечной функции. В прогрессировании ХБП при ХСН участвует также уремический токсин индоксилсульфат, обладающий выраженным нефротоксическим действием. Для лечения хронической болезни почек у больных ХСН, получающих обычную лекарственную терапию, используются разные терапевтические подходы. Они включают предотвращение нарушений внутрипочечной гемодинамики (коррекция доз ингибиторов АПФ, назначение препаратов с преимущественно печеночным путем элиминации, добавление к ингибиторам АПФ блокаторов АТ1ангиотензиновых рецепторов), ослабление гипоксического повреждения почечной ткани (лечение анемии препаратами эритропоэтина, дарбопоэтина и железа) и снижение повреждающего действия на почки диуретиков и антагонистов рецепторов альдостерона.</p></abstract><trans-abstract xml:lang="en"><p>In the review modern data on a morphological picture, mechanisms of formation and approaches to drug therapy of chronic kidney disease (CKD) in patients with chronic cardiorenal syndrome are generalized. Principal causes of occurrence and progressing of chronic “heart” nephropathy – neurohumoral activation and infringement of system arterial and venous hemodynamics, startingneurohumoral, hemodynamics and hypoxic mechanisms of renal sclerotic damage. Earliest of them is compensatory by the nature narrowing efferent glomerular arterioles, promoting increase in filtration fraction and occurrence of steady glomerularhypertension causing mechanical damage of fenestrial endothelium, podocytes and glomerular mesangial cells. In formation of this renal hemodynamics defect the mainly role is played with hyperactivity of circulating reninangiotensinaldosterone system(RAAS) and renal tissue reninangiotensin system (RAS). In process of the further infringement postglomerular blood flow and occurrence in persons with expressed chronic heart failure (CHF) anemia syndrome the mechanism of renal sclerotic damage joins renal tissue hypoxia, the leader to development of hypoxic glomerulosclerosis and tubulointerstititial fibrosis, accelerating loss of kidney function. In CKD progression with CHF also participates to uremic toxin indoxyl sulfate, which possesses the expressive nephrotoxic action. For treatment of chronic kidney disease in patients with CHF, receiving usual drug therapy, various therapeutic approaches are used. They include prevention of intrarenal hemodynamics infringements (correction of dozes of angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors, purpose of preparations with mainly hepatic elimination, addition to ACEinhibitors AT1angiotensin receptor blockers), easing hypoxic damage of renal tissue (treatment of an anemia by erythropoietin, darbepoetin and iron preparations) and decrease damaging actions on kidneys diuretics and aldosterone receptor antagonists.</p></trans-abstract><kwd-group xml:lang="ru"><kwd>сердечная недостаточность</kwd><kwd>хронический кардиоренальный синдром</kwd><kwd>нефропатия</kwd><kwd>терапевтические подходы</kwd></kwd-group><kwd-group xml:lang="en"><kwd>heart failure</kwd><kwd>chronic cardiorenal syndrome</kwd><kwd>nephropathy</kwd><kwd>therapeutic approaches</kwd></kwd-group></article-meta></front><back><ref-list><title>References</title><ref id="cit1"><label>1</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Ronco C, McCullough P, Anker SD et al. Cardio-renal syndromes: report from the consensus conference of the Acute Dialysis Quality Initiative. Eur Heart J 2010; 31 (6): 703-711</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Ronco C, McCullough P, Anker SD et al. Cardio-renal syndromes: report from the consensus conference of the Acute Dialysis Quality Initiative. Eur Heart J 2010; 31 (6): 703-711</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit2"><label>2</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Smith GL, Lichtman JH, Bracken MG et al. Renal impairment and outcomes in heart failure. Systemic review and meta-analysis. J Am Coll Cardiol 2006; 47 (10): 1987-1996</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Smith GL, Lichtman JH, Bracken MG et al. Renal impairment and outcomes in heart failure. Systemic review and meta-analysis. J Am Coll Cardiol 2006; 47 (10): 1987-1996</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit3"><label>3</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Masson S, Latini R, Milani V et al. Prevalence and prognostic value of elevated urinary albumin excretion in patients with chronic heart failure: data from GISSI-Heart Failure trial. Circ Heart Fail 2010; 3 (1): 65-72</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Masson S, Latini R, Milani V et al. Prevalence and prognostic value of elevated urinary albumin excretion in patients with chronic heart failure: data from GISSI-Heart Failure trial. Circ Heart Fail 2010; 3 (1): 65-72</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit4"><label>4</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Jackson CE, Solomon SD, Gerstein HC et al. Albuminuria in chronic heart failure: prevalence and prognostic importance. Lancet 2009; 374 (9689): 543-550</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Jackson CE, Solomon SD, Gerstein HC et al. Albuminuria in chronic heart failure: prevalence and prognostic importance. Lancet 2009; 374 (9689): 543-550</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit5"><label>5</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Yoshida H, Yashiro M, Ping Liang et al. Mesangiolytic glomerulopathy in severe congestive heart failure. Kidney Int 1998; 53 (4): 880-891</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Yoshida H, Yashiro M, Ping Liang et al. Mesangiolytic glomerulopathy in severe congestive heart failure. Kidney Int 1998; 53 (4): 880-891</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit6"><label>6</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Kjaer A, Hesse B. Heart failure and neuroendocrine activation: diagnostic, prognostic and therapeutic perspective. Clin Physiol 2001; 21 (6): 661-672</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Kjaer A, Hesse B. Heart failure and neuroendocrine activation: diagnostic, prognostic and therapeutic perspective. Clin Physiol 2001; 21 (6): 661-672</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit7"><label>7</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Remes J, Tikkanen I, Fyhrqust F, Pyorala K. Neuroendocrine activity in untreated heart failure. Brit Heart J 1991; 65 (2): 249-255</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Remes J, Tikkanen I, Fyhrqust F, Pyorala K. Neuroendocrine activity in untreated heart failure. Brit Heart J 1991; 65 (2): 249-255</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit8"><label>8</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Ситникова МЮ, Беляева ОД, Сычева ЮА и др. Гемодинамические и локальные натрийуретические системы почек при начальных стадиях сердечной недостаточности.Влияние длительной терапии периндоприлом. Кардиология 2000; 40 (9): 64-68</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Ситникова МЮ, Беляева ОД, Сычева ЮА и др. Гемодинамические и локальные натрийуретические системы почек при начальных стадиях сердечной недостаточности.Влияние длительной терапии периндоприлом. Кардиология 2000; 40 (9): 64-68</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit9"><label>9</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Ljungman S., Laragh J.H., Cody R.J. Role of the kidney in congestive heart failure. Relationship of cardiac index to kidney function. Drugs 1990; 39 [Suppl. 4]: 10-21</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Ljungman S., Laragh J.H., Cody R.J. Role of the kidney in congestive heart failure. Relationship of cardiac index to kidney function. Drugs 1990; 39 [Suppl. 4]: 10-21</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit10"><label>10</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Margi P, Rao A, Cangianiello S et al. Early impairment of renal hemodynamic reserve in patients with asymptomatic heart failure is restored by angiotensin II antagonism. Circulation 1998; 98 (25): 28-49-2854</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Margi P, Rao A, Cangianiello S et al. Early impairment of renal hemodynamic reserve in patients with asymptomatic heart failure is restored by angiotensin II antagonism. Circulation 1998; 98 (25): 28-49-2854</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit11"><label>11</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Nishikimi T, Ochino K, Frohlich ED. Effects of alpha 1-adrenergic blockade on intrarenal hemodynamics in heart failure rats. Am J Physiol 1992; 262 (2, Pt 2): R198-R203</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Nishikimi T, Ochino K, Frohlich ED. Effects of alpha 1-adrenergic blockade on intrarenal hemodynamics in heart failure rats. Am J Physiol 1992; 262 (2, Pt 2): R198-R203</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit12"><label>12</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Numabe A, Komatsu K, Frohlich ED. Intrarenal hemodynamics in low- and high-output cardiac failure rats. Am J Med Sci 1994; 308 (6): 331-337</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Numabe A, Komatsu K, Frohlich ED. Intrarenal hemodynamics in low- and high-output cardiac failure rats. Am J Med Sci 1994; 308 (6): 331-337</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit13"><label>13</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Yoshida H, Matsushima H. Machiguchi T et al. Glomerular hyperfiltration and sclerosis in chronic heart failure. J Am Soc Nephrol 1995; 6 (3): 689 (Abstract)</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Yoshida H, Matsushima H. Machiguchi T et al. Glomerular hyperfiltration and sclerosis in chronic heart failure. J Am Soc Nephrol 1995; 6 (3): 689 (Abstract)</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit14"><label>14</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Кузьмин ОБ, Бучнева НВ, Пугаева МО. Почечные гемодинамические механизмы формирования гипертонической нефропатии. Нефрология 2009; 13 (4): 28-36</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Кузьмин ОБ, Бучнева НВ, Пугаева МО. Почечные гемодинамические механизмы формирования гипертонической нефропатии. Нефрология 2009; 13 (4): 28-36</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit15"><label>15</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Акаемова ОН, Коц ЯИ, Синицын ВЕ. Состояние периферической и внутрисердечной венозной системы сердца при хронической сердечной недостаточности. Терархив 2009; 81 (12): 27-30</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Акаемова ОН, Коц ЯИ, Синицын ВЕ. Состояние периферической и внутрисердечной венозной системы сердца при хронической сердечной недостаточности. Терархив 2009; 81 (12): 27-30</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit16"><label>16</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Mullens W, Abrahams Z, Francis GS et al. Importance of venous congestion for worsening of renal function in advanced decompensated renal failure. J Am Coll Cardiol 2009; 53 (7): 589-596</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Mullens W, Abrahams Z, Francis GS et al. Importance of venous congestion for worsening of renal function in advanced decompensated renal failure. J Am Coll Cardiol 2009; 53 (7): 589-596</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit17"><label>17</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Damman K, Van Deursen VM, Navis G et al. Increased central venous pressure is associated with impaired renal function and mortality in a broad spectrum of patients with cardiovascular disease. J Am Coll Cardiol 2009; 53 (7): 582-558</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Damman K, Van Deursen VM, Navis G et al. Increased central venous pressure is associated with impaired renal function and mortality in a broad spectrum of patients with cardiovascular disease. J Am Coll Cardiol 2009; 53 (7): 582-558</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit18"><label>18</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Abildgaard U. Hemodynamics and functional changes during renal venous stasis in dog kidney. Dan Med Bull 1989; 36 (3): 212-222</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Abildgaard U. Hemodynamics and functional changes during renal venous stasis in dog kidney. Dan Med Bull 1989; 36 (3): 212-222</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit19"><label>19</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Doty JM, Saggi BH, Sugerman HJ et al. Effect of increased renal venous pressure on renal function. J Trauma 1999; 47 (6): 1000-1003</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Doty JM, Saggi BH, Sugerman HJ et al. Effect of increased renal venous pressure on renal function. J Trauma 1999; 47 (6): 1000-1003</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit20"><label>20</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Bresis M, Rosen S, Silva P, Epstein FH. Renal ischemia: A new perspective. Kidney Int 1984; 26 (4): 375-383</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Bresis M, Rosen S, Silva P, Epstein FH. Renal ischemia: A new perspective. Kidney Int 1984; 26 (4): 375-383</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit21"><label>21</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Higgins DF, Kimura K, Iwano M, Haase VH. Hypoxiainducible factor signaling in the development of tissue fibrosis. Cell Cycle 2008; 7 (9): 1128-1132</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Higgins DF, Kimura K, Iwano M, Haase VH. Hypoxiainducible factor signaling in the development of tissue fibrosis. Cell Cycle 2008; 7 (9): 1128-1132</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit22"><label>22</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Bemhardt WM, Campean V, Kany S et al. Preconditional activation of hypoxia-inducible factors ameliorates ischemic acute renal failure. J AM Soc Nephrol 2006; 17 (7): 1970-1980</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Bemhardt WM, Campean V, Kany S et al. Preconditional activation of hypoxia-inducible factors ameliorates ischemic acute renal failure. J AM Soc Nephrol 2006; 17 (7): 1970-1980</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit23"><label>23</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Song YR, You SJ, Lee YM et al. Activation of hypoxia- inducible factor attenuates renal injury in rat remnant kidney. Nephrol Dial Transplant 2010; 25 (1): 77-85</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Song YR, You SJ, Lee YM et al. Activation of hypoxia- inducible factor attenuates renal injury in rat remnant kidney. Nephrol Dial Transplant 2010; 25 (1): 77-85</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit24"><label>24</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Orphanides C, Fine LG, Norman JT. Hypoxia stimulates proximal tubular cell matrix production via a TGF-β1- independent mechanism. Kidney Int 1997; 52 (3): 637-647</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Orphanides C, Fine LG, Norman JT. Hypoxia stimulates proximal tubular cell matrix production via a TGF-β1- independent mechanism. Kidney Int 1997; 52 (3): 637-647</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit25"><label>25</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Norman JT, Fine LG. Intrarenal oxygenation in chronic renal failure. Clin Exp Pharmacol Physiol 2006; 33 (10): 989-996</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Norman JT, Fine LG. Intrarenal oxygenation in chronic renal failure. Clin Exp Pharmacol Physiol 2006; 33 (10): 989-996</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit26"><label>26</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Neumann AK, Yang J, Biju MP et al. Hypoxia inducible factor 1б regulates T-cell receptor signal transduction. Proc Natl Acad Sci 2005; 102 (47): 17071-17076</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Neumann AK, Yang J, Biju MP et al. Hypoxia inducible factor 1б regulates T-cell receptor signal transduction. Proc Natl Acad Sci 2005; 102 (47): 17071-17076</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit27"><label>27</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Poyton RO, Ball KA, Castello PR. Mitochondrial generation of free radicals and hypoxic signaling. Trends Endocrinol Metab 2009; 20 (7): 332-340</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Poyton RO, Ball KA, Castello PR. Mitochondrial generation of free radicals and hypoxic signaling. Trends Endocrinol Metab 2009; 20 (7): 332-340</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit28"><label>28</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Subtirelu M, Gershin I, Teichman J, Tufro A. A novel model of chronic hypoxia-induced glomerulomegaly (Abstract). J Am Soc Nephrol 2005; 16: 668A</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Subtirelu M, Gershin I, Teichman J, Tufro A. A novel model of chronic hypoxia-induced glomerulomegaly (Abstract). J Am Soc Nephrol 2005; 16: 668A</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit29"><label>29</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Brukamp K, Jin B, Moeller M, Haase VH. Hypoxia and podocyte-specific Vhlh deletion confer risk of glomerular disease. Am J Physiol Renal 2007; 293 (4): F1397-F1407</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Brukamp K, Jin B, Moeller M, Haase VH. Hypoxia and podocyte-specific Vhlh deletion confer risk of glomerular disease. Am J Physiol Renal 2007; 293 (4): F1397-F1407</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit30"><label>30</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Neusser MA, Lindenmeyer MT, Moll AG et al. Human nephrosclerosis triggers a hypoxia-related glomerulopathy. Am J Pathol 2010; 176 (2): 594-607</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Neusser MA, Lindenmeyer MT, Moll AG et al. Human nephrosclerosis triggers a hypoxia-related glomerulopathy. Am J Pathol 2010; 176 (2): 594-607</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit31"><label>31</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Rodriquez-Diez R, Carvajal-Gonzales G, Sancher-Lopes E et al. Pharmacological modulation of epithelial-mesenchymal transition caused by angiotensin II. Role of ROCK and MAPK pathways. Pharm Res 2008; 25 (10): 2447-2461</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Rodriquez-Diez R, Carvajal-Gonzales G, Sancher-Lopes E et al. Pharmacological modulation of epithelial-mesenchymal transition caused by angiotensin II. Role of ROCK and MAPK pathways. Pharm Res 2008; 25 (10): 2447-2461</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit32"><label>32</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Nangaki M. Chronic hypoxia and tubulointerstitial injury: a final common pathway to end-stage renal failure. J Am Soc Nephrol 2006; 17 (1): 17-25</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Nangaki M. Chronic hypoxia and tubulointerstitial injury: a final common pathway to end-stage renal failure. J Am Soc Nephrol 2006; 17 (1): 17-25</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit33"><label>33</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Fine LG, Norman JT. Chronic hypoxia as a mechanism of progression of chronic kidney diseases: from hypothesis to novel therapeutics. Kidney Int 2008; 74 (7): 867-872</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Fine LG, Norman JT. Chronic hypoxia as a mechanism of progression of chronic kidney diseases: from hypothesis to novel therapeutics. Kidney Int 2008; 74 (7): 867-872</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit34"><label>34</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Higgins DF, Kimura K, Bernhardt WM et al. Hypoxia promotes fibrogenesis in vivo via HIF-1 stimulation of epithelial- to-mesenchymal transition. J Clin Invest 2007; 117 (12): 3810- 3820</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Higgins DF, Kimura K, Bernhardt WM et al. Hypoxia promotes fibrogenesis in vivo via HIF-1 stimulation of epithelial- to-mesenchymal transition. J Clin Invest 2007; 117 (12): 3810- 3820</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit35"><label>35</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Sun S, Ning X, Zhang Y et al. Hypoxia-inducible factor alpha induces Twist expression in tubular epithelial cells subjected to hypoxia leading to epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition. Kidney Int 2009; 75 (12): 1278-1287</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Sun S, Ning X, Zhang Y et al. Hypoxia-inducible factor alpha induces Twist expression in tubular epithelial cells subjected to hypoxia leading to epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition. Kidney Int 2009; 75 (12): 1278-1287</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit36"><label>36</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Guo LP, Huang HC, Li JZ. Hypoxia induces the expression and secretion of connective tissue growth factor and fibronectin by cultured renal cortical myofibroblasts. Beijing Da Hue Bao 2007; 39 (1): 67-71</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Guo LP, Huang HC, Li JZ. Hypoxia induces the expression and secretion of connective tissue growth factor and fibronectin by cultured renal cortical myofibroblasts. Beijing Da Hue Bao 2007; 39 (1): 67-71</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit37"><label>37</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Namba S, Okuda Y, Morimoto A et al. Indoxyl sulfate is a useful predictor for progression of chronic kidney disease. Rinsho Byori 2010; 58 (5): 448-453</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Namba S, Okuda Y, Morimoto A et al. Indoxyl sulfate is a useful predictor for progression of chronic kidney disease. Rinsho Byori 2010; 58 (5): 448-453</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit38"><label>38</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Miyazaki T, Ise M, Seo H et al. Indoxyl sulfate increases the gene expression of TGF-в1, TIMP-1 and proб(1) collagen in uremic rat kidney. Kidney Int 1997; 52 [Suppl]: S15-S22</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Miyazaki T, Ise M, Seo H et al. Indoxyl sulfate increases the gene expression of TGF-в1, TIMP-1 and proб(1) collagen in uremic rat kidney. Kidney Int 1997; 52 [Suppl]: S15-S22</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit39"><label>39</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Motojima M, Hosokawa A, Yamamoto H et al. Uremic toxins of organic anions upregulate PAI-1 expression by induction of NF-kB and free radicals in proximal tubular cells. Kidney Int 2003; 63 (6): 1671-1680</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Motojima M, Hosokawa A, Yamamoto H et al. Uremic toxins of organic anions upregulate PAI-1 expression by induction of NF-kB and free radicals in proximal tubular cells. Kidney Int 2003; 63 (6): 1671-1680</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit40"><label>40</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Gelasco AK, Raymond JR. Indoxyl sulfate induces complex redox alterations in mesangial cells. Am J Physiol Renal 2006; 290 (6): F1551-1558</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Gelasco AK, Raymond JR. Indoxyl sulfate induces complex redox alterations in mesangial cells. Am J Physiol Renal 2006; 290 (6): F1551-1558</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit41"><label>41</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Namba S, Okuda Y, Morimoto A et al. A serum indoxyl sulfate is a useful predictor of chronic kidney disease. Rinsho Byori 2010; 58 (5): 448-453</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Namba S, Okuda Y, Morimoto A et al. A serum indoxyl sulfate is a useful predictor of chronic kidney disease. Rinsho Byori 2010; 58 (5): 448-453</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit42"><label>42</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Shibahara H, Shibahara N. Cardiorenal protective effects of the oral uremic toxin adsorbent AST-120 in chronic heart disease patients with moderate CKD. J Nephrol 2010; 23 (5): 535-540</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Shibahara H, Shibahara N. Cardiorenal protective effects of the oral uremic toxin adsorbent AST-120 in chronic heart disease patients with moderate CKD. J Nephrol 2010; 23 (5): 535-540</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit43"><label>43</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Ahmed A, Love TE, Sui X, Rich MW. Effects of angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors in systolic heart failure patients with chronic kidney disease: a propensity score analysis. J Card Fail 2006; 12 (7): 499-506</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Ahmed A, Love TE, Sui X, Rich MW. Effects of angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors in systolic heart failure patients with chronic kidney disease: a propensity score analysis. J Card Fail 2006; 12 (7): 499-506</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit44"><label>44</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Berger AK, Duvals S, Manske C et al. Angiotensin- converting enzyme inhibitors and angiotensin receptor blockers in patients with congestive heart failure and chronic kidney disease. Am Heart J 2007; 153 (6): 1064-1073</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Berger AK, Duvals S, Manske C et al. Angiotensin- converting enzyme inhibitors and angiotensin receptor blockers in patients with congestive heart failure and chronic kidney disease. Am Heart J 2007; 153 (6): 1064-1073</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit45"><label>45</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Whaley-Connell A, Habibi J, Johnson M et al. Nebivolol reduces proteinuria and renal NADPH oxidase-generated reactive oxygen species in the transgenic Ran2 rat. J Am Nephrol 2009; 30 (4): 356-360</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Whaley-Connell A, Habibi J, Johnson M et al. Nebivolol reduces proteinuria and renal NADPH oxidase-generated reactive oxygen species in the transgenic Ran2 rat. J Am Nephrol 2009; 30 (4): 356-360</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit46"><label>46</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Wong WY, Laping NG, Helson AH et al. Renoprotective effects of carvedilol in hypertensive-stroke prone rats may involve inhibition of TGFв expression. Brit J Pharmacol 2001; 134 (5): 977-984</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Wong WY, Laping NG, Helson AH et al. Renoprotective effects of carvedilol in hypertensive-stroke prone rats may involve inhibition of TGFв expression. Brit J Pharmacol 2001; 134 (5): 977-984</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit47"><label>47</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Cohen-Solal A, Kotecha D, van Veldhuisen DJ et al.Efficacy and safety of nebivolol in elderly heart failure patients with impaired renal function: insights from RENIORS trial. Eur J Heart Fail 2009; 11 (9): 872-880</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Cohen-Solal A, Kotecha D, van Veldhuisen DJ et al.Efficacy and safety of nebivolol in elderly heart failure patients with impaired renal function: insights from RENIORS trial. Eur J Heart Fail 2009; 11 (9): 872-880</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit48"><label>48</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Groenveld HF, Januzzi JC, Damman K et al. Anemia and mortality in heart failure patients. A systematic review and meta-analysis. J Am Coll Cardiol 2008; 52 (10): 818-827</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Groenveld HF, Januzzi JC, Damman K et al. Anemia and mortality in heart failure patients. A systematic review and meta-analysis. J Am Coll Cardiol 2008; 52 (10): 818-827</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit49"><label>49</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Palazzuoli A, Qvatrini I, Calabro A et al. Anemia correction by erythropoietin reduces BNP levels, hospitalization rate and NYHA class in patients with cardio-renal anemia syndrome. Clin Exp Med 2010;</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Palazzuoli A, Qvatrini I, Calabro A et al. Anemia correction by erythropoietin reduces BNP levels, hospitalization rate and NYHA class in patients with cardio-renal anemia syndrome. Clin Exp Med 2010;</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit50"><label>50</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Ahmed A, Husain A, Love TE et al. Heart failure, chronic diuretic use and increase in mortality and hospitalization: an observational study using propensity score methods. Eur Heart J 2006; 27 (12): 1431-1439</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Ahmed A, Husain A, Love TE et al. Heart failure, chronic diuretic use and increase in mortality and hospitalization: an observational study using propensity score methods. Eur Heart J 2006; 27 (12): 1431-1439</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit51"><label>51</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Ahmed A, Young JB, Love TE et al. A propensity-matched study of the effects of chronic diuretic therapy on mortality and hospitalization in older adults with heart failure. Int J Cardiol 2008; 125 (2): 246-253</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Ahmed A, Young JB, Love TE et al. A propensity-matched study of the effects of chronic diuretic therapy on mortality and hospitalization in older adults with heart failure. Int J Cardiol 2008; 125 (2): 246-253</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit52"><label>52</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Tamirisa KP, Aaronson KD, Koelling TM. Spironolactone- induced renal insufficiency and hyperkaliemia in patients with heart failure. Am Heart J 2004; 148 (6): 971-978</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Tamirisa KP, Aaronson KD, Koelling TM. Spironolactone- induced renal insufficiency and hyperkaliemia in patients with heart failure. Am Heart J 2004; 148 (6): 971-978</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit53"><label>53</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Национальные рекомендации ВНОК и ОССН по диагностике и лечению ХСН (третий пересмотр). Журнал Сердечная недостаточность 2009; 10 (2): 64-106</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Национальные рекомендации ВНОК и ОССН по диагностике и лечению ХСН (третий пересмотр). Журнал Сердечная недостаточность 2009; 10 (2): 64-106</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref></ref-list><fn-group><fn fn-type="conflict"><p>The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest present.</p></fn></fn-group></back></article>
